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After an unusually dry summer, a botanist examined twenty plots containing the same species of grass. Not all of the shaded plots retained green leaves, while none of the unshaded plots did. However, several shaded plots had also received water leaking from a nearby irrigation pipe. The botanist recorded the pattern without assigning it to shade alone. A second trial would provide equal water to shaded and unshaded plots and compare their condition over the same period. The first observations narrowed the possibilities, but did not determine which of the two environmental differences accounted for the plants that remained green.

After an unusually dry summer, a botanist examined twenty plots containing the same species of grass. Not all of the shaded plots retained green leaves, while none of the unshaded plots did. However, several shaded plots had also received water leaking from a nearby irrigation pipe. The botanist recorded the pattern without assigning it to shade alone. A second trial would provide equal water to shaded and unshaded plots and compare their condition over the same period. The first observations narrowed the possibilities, but did not determine which of the two environmental differences accounted for the plants that remained green.

A coastal council considers a seawall necessary for protecting its oldest district during severe storms, but it does not regard the wall as sufficient. Water can still enter through drainage channels unless their gates are closed at the correct time. During a recent exercise, every gate was closed, yet a temporary gap in the wall allowed water into a test area. Officials consequently rejected the claim that closing the gates by itself guaranteed protection. Their revised plan treats the barrier and the gate procedure as complementary measures, while acknowledging that storms beyond the design limit would require evacuation as well.

A coastal council considers a seawall necessary for protecting its oldest district during severe storms, but it does not regard the wall as sufficient. Water can still enter through drainage channels unless their gates are closed at the correct time. During a recent exercise, every gate was closed, yet a temporary gap in the wall allowed water into a test area. Officials consequently rejected the claim that closing the gates by itself guaranteed protection. Their revised plan treats the barrier and the gate procedure as complementary measures, while acknowledging that storms beyond the design limit would require evacuation as well.